Caloric
intake must be increased, to ensure proper development of the fetus.
The amount of weight gained during pregnancy varies among women. The National Health Service recommends
that overall weight gain during the 9 month period for women who start
pregnancy with normal weight be 10 to 12 kilograms (22–26 lb). During pregnancy, insufficient weight gain can compromise the health of the fetus. Women with fears of weight gain or with eating disorders may
choose to work with a health professional, to ensure that pregnancy
does not trigger disordered eating. Likewise, excessive weight gain can
pose risks to the woman and the fetus. Women who are prone to beingoverweight may choose to plan a healthy diet and exercise to help moderate the amount of weight gained.
Immunological tolerance/ Pre-eclampsia
Research
on the immunological basis for pre-eclampsia has indicated that
continued exposure to a partner's semen has a strong protective effect
against pre-eclampsia, largely due to the absorption of several immune
modulating factors present in seminal fluid. Studies also showed that
long periods of sexual cohabitation with the same partner fathering a
woman's child significantly decreased her chances of suffering
pre-eclampsia. Several other studies have since investigated the
strongly decreased incidence of pre-eclampsia in women who had received
blood transfusions from their partner, those with long, preceding
histories of sex without barrier contraceptives, and in women who had
been regularly performing oral sex, with one study concluding that
"induction of allogeneic tolerance to the paternal HLA molecules of the fetus may be crucial. Data collected strongly suggests that exposure, and especially oral exposure to soluble HLA from semen can lead to transplantation tolerance."
Other
studies have investigated the roles of semen in the female reproductive
tracts of mice, showing that "insemination elicits inflammatory changes
in female reproductive tissues,"concluding that the changes "likely
lead to immunological priming to paternal antigens or influence
pregnancy outcomes." A similar series of studies confirmed the
importance of immune modulation in female mice through the absorption of
specific immune factors in semen, including TGF-Beta, lack of which is also being investigated as a cause of miscarriage in women and infertility in men.
According
to the theory, pre-eclampsia is frequently caused by a failure of the
woman's immune system to accept the fetus and placenta, which both
contain "foreign" proteins from paternal genes. Regular exposure to the
father's semen causes her immune system to develop tolerance to the
paternal antigens,
a process which is significantly supported by as many as 93 currently
identified immune regulating factors in seminal fluid. Having already
noted the importance of a woman's immunological tolerance to
the fetus's paternal genes, several Dutch reproductive biologists
decided to take their research a step further. Consistent with the fact
that human immune systems tolerate things better when they enter the
body via the mouth, the Dutch researchers conducted a series of studies
that confirmed a surprisingly strong correlation between a diminished
incidence of pre-eclampsia and a woman's practice of oral sex, and noted
that the protective effects were strongest if she swallowed her
partner's semen. The researchers concluded that while any exposure to a
partner's semen during sexual activity appears to decrease a woman's
chances for the various immunological disorders that can occur during
pregnancy, immunological tolerance could
be most quickly established through oral introduction and
gastrointestinal absorption of semen.Recognizing that some of the
studies potentially included the presence of confounding factors, such
as the possibility that women who regularly perform oral sex and swallow
semen might also engage in more frequent vaginal intercourse, the
researchers also noted that, either way, the data still overwhelmingly
supports the main theory behind all their studies--that repeated
exposure to semen establishes the maternal immunological tolerance necessary for a safe and successful pregnancy.
Drugs in pregnancy
Drugs
used during pregnancy can have temporary or permanent effects on the
fetus. Therefore many physicians would prefer not to prescribe for
pregnant women, the major concern being over teratogenicity of
the drugs. This results in inappropriate treatment of pregnant women.
Use of drugs in pregnancy is not always wrong. For example, high fever
is harmful for the fetus in the early months. Use of paracetamol is better than no treatment at all. Also, diabetes mellitus during pregnancy may need intensive therapy with insulin.
Drugs have been classified into categories A,B,C,D and X based on the
Food and Drug Administration(FDA) rating system to provide therapeutic
guidance based on potential benefits and fetal risks. Drugs like multivitamins that
have demonstrated no fetal risks after controlled studies in humans are
classified as Category A. On the other hand drugs like thalidomide with proven fetal risks that outweigh all benefits are classified as Category X.
Sexuality during pregnancy
Most pregnant women can enjoy sexual intercourse throughout
gravidity. Most research suggests that, during pregnancy, both sexual
desire and frequency of sexual relations decrease. In context of this
overall decrease in desire, some studies indicate a second-trimester
increase, preceding a decrease. However, these decreases are not
universal: a significant number of women report greater sexual
satisfaction throughout their pregnancies.
Sex
during pregnancy is a low-risk behaviour except when the physician
advises that sexual intercourse be avoided, which may, in some
pregnancies, lead to serious pregnancy complications or health issues
such as a high-risk for premature labour or a ruptured uterus. Such a
decision may be based upon a history of difficulties in a previous
childbirth.
Some
psychological research studies in the 1980s and '90s contend that it is
useful for pregnant women to continue to have sexual activity,
specifically noting that overall sexual satisfaction was correlated with
feeling happy about being pregnant, feeling more attractive in late
pregnancy than before pregnancy and experiencing orgasm. Sexual
activity has also been suggested as a way to prepare for induced
labour; some believe the natural prostaglandin content of seminal liquid
can favour the maturation process of the cervix making it more
flexible, allowing for easier and faster dilation and effacement of the
cervix. However, the efficacy of using sexual intercourse as an
induction agent "remains uncertain".
During
pregnancy, the fetus is protected from penetrative thrusting by the
amniotic fluid in the womb and by the woman's abdomen.
Abortion
An abortion is
the removal or expulsion of an embryo or fetus from the uterus,
resulting in or caused by its death. This can occur spontaneously or
accidentally as with a miscarriage, or be artificially induced by medical, surgical or other means.